re-Columbian civilization in the Andes, culminating in the Inca empire, developed in the territories of what makes up the modern countries of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, and northwestern Argentina. Andean societies were challenged by one of the harshest physical environments in the world, ranging from extremely high elevations to coastal deserts. They developed sophisticated systems of agriculture, government, and trade. Although Andean cultures did not develop a written script, their weavings recorded family and political histories through special patterns and motifs. They were equally adept at metalwork and ceramics, the study of which help reveal aspects of pre-Columbian life in the Andes.